Causes of Air Accidents

Air Accident An Air accident is the worst nightmare of every pilot or passenger that has ever ridden in an aircraft. Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportations, accidents do happen with dramatic and terrifying results. The circumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot error, and bad weather. One cause of Air accidents take place is during takeoff and landing. Approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents occur shortly before, after, or during takeoff or landing, and are often described as resulting from â€Å"human error. The causes of Air accident is vary greatly depending on problems that may develop during the flight possess. In many situations these accidents can be completely avoided through careful preparation and effective safety techniques. Taxi and Takeoff is one of the most important parts of a flight. The preflight and planning stages of the operation must be carefully done to prevent accidents and save many lives. Landing Accidents during Descent account for 36 percent of all general Air mishaps and are the most common type of accident.When combined, taxi and takeoff accidents account for about 22percent jet airplane accidents, and about 22percent of all fatalities. Another cause of Air accidents is mechanical failures. No form of transportation is completely safe, and no machine is completely foolproof. Mechanical failure is responsible for 13percent of all commercial airplane accidents. An airplane can crash if engine failure can come in form of simple stalling. It could be as worse as a complete detachment of the motor itself.Many Modern planes have more than one engine and this allows the plane to continue to fly when one is shut down. However, these other cases where all shut at one, or one after the other, and accident occur. Anything that can go wrong will go wrong. Tragically, this sometimes applies to Air accidents when mechanical failures occur. A some what different cause for Air accidents is a pilot error. When most people make mistakes at their jobs, their employment can be terminated.In contrast, when pilots are negligent or make errors while on their jobs, there is potential for hundreds of lives to be terminated. The pilots receive extensive training designed to prepare them to handle a wide variety of situations, but there are times when fatal mistakes are made. When flight crew and pilots do their jobs correctly, Air accidents are much less likely to occur. Another important cause of Air accidents is bad weather. For example, flying at peak thunderstorm times should be avoided.In addition, flying at night is no safer than flying in the day. The weather caused 4percent of Air accidents. However, other problems made up the remaining 4percent. Most plane crashes happen in the months of September and December. However, no one from any investigation knows almost Air accidents happened in these two months. In conclusion, the cir cumstance of Air accidents takes place by four causes: takeoff and landing, mechanical failures, pilot errors, and bad weather. Yet many airplane accidents still have unknown causes.

Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger An interchangeable plate heat exchanger Tubular heat exchanger. A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in direct contact. [1] They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment.The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. Contents| Flow arrangement Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) flows * Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger, single pass (1–1 parallel flow) * Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass tube side (1–2 crossflow) * Fig. : Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2- pass shell side, 2-pass tube side (2-2 countercurrent) There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium due to the fact that the average temperature difference along any unit length is greater.See countercurrent exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one o r both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate mean temperature can be defined.In most simple systems this is the â€Å"log mean temperature difference† (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used. Types of heat exchangers Shell and tube heat exchanger A Shell and Tube heat exchanger Main article: Shell and tube heat exchanger Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260  Ã‚ °C). [2] This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape. Several thermal design features must be considered when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers: * Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and compact.However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered. * Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure: * There is enough room for corrosion * That flow-induced vibration has resistance * Axial strength * Availability of spare parts Hoop strength (to withstand internal tub e pressure) * Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell) * Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this, including space available at the installation site and the need to ensure tubes are available in lengths that are twice the required length (so they can be withdrawn and replaced).Also, long, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace. * Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i. e. , the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1. 25 times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter, which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger. * Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes, in creases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat transfer giving a better performance. Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30 °), rotated triangular (60 °), square (90 °) and rotated square (45 °). The triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular. * Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across the tube bundle.They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the f luid to flow upward and downwards between the tube bundle. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer.For thermo economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shell’s inner diameter. Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because of flow redirection. Consequently having the baffles spaced too far apart means that there may be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. It is also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and donut baffle, which consists of two concentric baffles. An outer, wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped like a disk.This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the disk then through the donut baffle generati ng a different type of fluid flow. Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suitable for marine and harsh applications can be assembled with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baffles, and forged brass integral end hubs. [3] (See: Copper in heat exchangers). Conceptual diagram of a plate and frame heat exchanger. A single plate heat exchanger An interchangeable plate heat exchanger applied to the system of a swimming pool Plate heat exchanger Main article: Plate heat exchangerAnother type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. One is composed of multiple, thin, slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas and fluid flow passages for heat transfer. This stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a given space, than the shell and tube heat exchanger. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type are called plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of the gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection.There are many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-brazed, vacuum-brazed, and welded plate varieties, and they are often specified for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with â€Å"chevron†, dimpled, or other patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves. Plate and shell heat exchanger A third type of heat exchanger is a plate and shell heat exchanger, which combines plate heat exchanger with shell and tube heat exchanger technologies.The heart of the heat exchanger contains a fully welded circular plate pack made by pressing and cutting round plates and welding them together. Nozzles carry flow in and out of the platepack (the ‘Plate side' flowpat h). The fully welded platepack is assembled into an outer shell that creates a second flowpath ( the ‘Shell side'). Plate and shell technology offers high heat transfer, high pressure, high operating temperature, compact size, low fouling and close approach temperature. In particular, it does completely without gaskets, which provides security against leakage at high pressures and temperatures.Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat, which is then moved to the other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and fluid heat exchangers. Plate fin heat exchanger Main article: Plate fin heat exchanger This type of heat exchanger uses â€Å"sandwiched† passages containing fins to increase the effectiveness of the unit.The designs include crossflow and counterflow cou pled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins. Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminium alloys, which provide high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the system to operate at a lower temperature and reduce the weight of the equipment. Plate and fin heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines. Advantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: High heat transfer efficiency especially in gas treatment * Larger heat transfer area * Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube heat exchanger. * Able to withstand high pressure Disadvantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: * Might cause clogging as the pathways are very narrow * Difficult to clean the pathways * Aluminum alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid Embrittlement Failure Pillow plat e heat exchanger A pillow plate exchanger is commonly used in the dairy industry for cooling milk in large direct-expansion stainless steel bulk tanks.The pillow plate allows for cooling across nearly the entire surface area of the tank, without gaps that would occur between pipes welded to the exterior of the tank. The pillow plate is constructed using a thin sheet of metal spot-welded to the surface of another thicker sheet of metal. The thin plate is welded in a regular pattern of dots or with a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the enclosed space is pressurized with sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge out around the welds, providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to flow, and creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow formed out of metal.Fluid heat exchangers This is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards through a shower of fluid (often water), and the fluid is then taken elsewhere before being cooled. This is commonly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain impurities, thus solving two problems at once. It is widely used in espresso machines as an energy-saving method of cooling super-heated water to use in the extraction of espresso. Waste heat recovery units A Waste Heat Recovery Unit (WHRU) is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a hot gas stream while transferring it to a working medium, typically water or oils.The hot gas stream can be the exhaust gas from a gas turbine or a diesel engine or a waste gas from industry or refinery. They can also be integrated into a heatcatcher system that allows an ORC[further explanation needed] generator to produce waste heat to power. Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Another type of heat exchanger is called â€Å"(dynamic) scraped surface heat exchanger†. This is mainly used for heating or cooling with high-viscosity products, crystallization processes, evaporation and high-fouling applications.Long running times are achieved due to th e continuous scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the process. Phase-change heat exchangers Typical kettle reboiler used for industrial distillation towers Typical water-cooled surface condenser In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat exchangers can be used either to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid. In chemical plants and refineries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers are often heat exchangers. 4][5] Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid. Power plants that use steam-driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam. Heat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers or steam generators. In the nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors, special large heat exchan gers pass heat from the primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam plant) system, producing steam from water in the process. These are called steam generators.All fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants using steam-driven turbines have surface condensers to convert the exhaust steam from the turbines into condensate (water) for re-use. [6][7] To conserve energy and cooling capacity in chemical and other plants, regenerative heat exchangers can transfer heat from a stream that must be cooled to another stream that must be heated, such as distillate cooling and reboiler feed pre-heating. This term can also refer to heat exchangers that contain a material within their structure that has a change of phase.This is usually a solid to liquid phase due to the small volume difference between these states. This change of phase effectively acts as a buffer because it occurs at a constant temperature but still allows for the heat exchanger to accept additional heat. One example where this has been investigated is for use in high power aircraft electronics. Direct contact heat exchangers Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer between hot and cold streams of two phases in the absence of a separating wall. [8] Thus such heat exchangers can be classified as: * Gas – liquid * Immiscible liquid – liquid Solid-liquid or solid – gas Most direct contact heat exchangers fall under the Gas- Liquid category, where heat is transferred between a gas and liquid in the form of drops, films or sprays. [2] Such types of heat exchangers are used predominantly in air conditioning, humidification, industrial hot water heating, water cooling and condensing plants. [9] Phases[10]| Continuous phase| Driving force| Change of phase| Examples| Gas – Liquid| Gas| Gravity| No| Spray columns, packed columns| | | | Yes| Cooling towers, falling droplet evaporators| | | Forced| No| Spray coolers/quenchers| | Liquid flow| Yes| Spray condensers/evaporati on, jet condensers| | Liquid| Gravity| No| Bubble columns, perforated tray columns| | | | Yes| Bubble column condensers| | | Forced| No| Gas spargers| | | Gas flow| Yes| Direct contact evaporators, submerged combustion| HVAC air coils One of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air conditioning of buildings and vehicles. This class of heat exchangers is commonly called air coils, or just coils due to their often-serpentine internal tubing. Liquid-to-air, or air-to-liquid HVAC coils are typically of modified crossflow arrangement. In vehicles, heat coils are often called heater cores.On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam, or a refrigerant. For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this heated fluid is supplied by boilers, for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a chiller that is potentially located very far away, but refri gerant must come from a nearby condensing unit. When a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. HVAC coils that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are commonly called DX coils.Some DX coils are â€Å"microchannel† type. [11] On the air side of HVAC coils a significant difference exists between those used for heating, and those for cooling. Due to psychrometrics, air that is cooled often has moisture condensing out of it, except with extremely dry air flows. Heating some air increases that airflow's capacity to hold water. So heating coils need not consider moisture condensation on their air-side, but cooling coils must be adequately designed and selected to handle their particular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling) loads.The water that is removed is called condensate. For many climates, water or steam HVAC coils can be exposed to freezing conditions. Because water expands upon freezing, these somewhat expensive and difficult to replace thin-walled heat exchangers can easily be damaged or destroyed by just one freeze. As such, freeze protection of coils is a major concern of HVAC designers, installers, and operators. The introduction of indentations placed within the heat exchange fins controlled condensation, allowing water molecules to remain in the cooled air.This invention allowed for refrigeration without icing of the cooling mechanism. [12] The heat exchangers in direct-combustion furnaces, typical in many residences, are not ‘coils'. They are, instead, gas-to-air heat exchangers that are typically made of stamped steel sheet metal. The combustion products pass on one side of these heat exchangers, and air to heat on the other. A cracked heat exchanger is therefore a dangerous situation that requires immediate attention because combustion products may enter living space. Spiral heat exchangers Schematic drawing of a spiral heat exchanger.A spiral heat exchang er (SHE), may refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration, more generally, the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two channels in a counter-flow arrangement. Each of the two channels has one long curved path. A pair of fluid ports are connected tangentially to the outer arms of the spiral, and axial ports are common, but optional. [13] The main advantage of the SHE is its highly efficient use of space. This attribute is often leveraged and partially reallocated to gain other improvements in performance, according to well known tradeoffs in heat exchanger design. A notable tradeoff is capital cost vs operating cost. ) A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint and thus lower all-around capital costs, or an over-sized SHE may be used to have less pressure drop, less pumping energy, higher thermal efficiency, and lower energy costs. Construction The distance between the sheets in the spiral channels are maintained by using spacer studs that were welded prior to rolling. Once the main spiral pack has been rolled, alternate top and bottom edges are welded and each end closed by a gasketed flat or conical cover bolted to the body.This ensures no mixing of the two fluids occurs. Any leakage is from the periphery cover to the atmosphere, or to a passage that contains the same fluid. [14] Self cleaning SHEs are often used in the heating of fluids that contain solids and thus tend to foul the inside of the heat exchanger. The low pressure drop lets the SHE handle fouling more easily. The SHE uses a â€Å"self cleaning† mechanism, whereby fouled surfaces cause a localized increase in fluid velocity, thus increasing the drag (or fluid friction) on the fouled surface, thus helping to dislodge the blockage and keep the heat exchanger clean. The internal walls that make up the heat transfer surface are often rather thick, which makes the SHE very robust, and able to last a long time in demanding environments. † They are also easily cleaned, opening out like an oven where any build up of foulant can be removed by pressure washing. Self-Cleaning Water filters are used to keep the system clean and running without the need to shut down or replace cartridges and bags. Flow arrangements Concurrent and countercurrent flow. There are three main types of flows in a spiral heat exchanger: 1. Counter-current Flow: Fluids flow in opposite directions.These are used for liquid-liquid, condensing and gas cooling applications. Units are usually mounted vertically when condensing vapour and mounted horizontally when handling high concentrations of solids. 2. Spiral Flow/Cross Flow: One fluid is in spiral flow and the other in a cross flow. Spiral flow passages are welded at each side for this type of spiral heat exchanger. This type of flow is suitable for handling low density gas, which passes through the cross flow, avoiding pressure loss. It can be used for liquid-liquid applications if one liquid has a cons iderably greater flow rate than the other. . Distributed Vapour/Spiral flow: This design is that of a condenser, and is usually mounted vertically. It is designed to cater for the sub-cooling of both condensate and non-condensables. The coolant moves in a spiral and leaves via the top. Hot gases that enter leave as condensate via the bottom outlet. Applications The SHE is good for applications such as pasteurization, digester heating, heat recovery, pre-heating (see: recuperator), and effluent cooling. For sludge treatment, SHEs are generally smaller than other types of heat exchangers. [citation needed] SelectionDue to the many variables involved, selecting optimal heat exchangers is challenging. Hand calculations are possible, but many iterations are typically needed. As such, heat exchangers are most often selected via computer programs, either by system designers, who are typically engineers, or by equipment vendors. To select an appropriate heat exchanger, the system designers (or equipment vendors) would firstly consider the design limitations for each heat exchanger type. Though cost is often the primary criterion, several other selection criteria are important: * High/low pressure limits * Thermal performance Temperature ranges * Product mix (liquid/liquid, particulates or high-solids liquid) * Pressure drops across the exchanger * Fluid flow capacity * Cleanability, maintenance and repair * Materials required for construction * Ability and ease of future expansion * Material selection, such as copper, aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys, and titanium. Small-diameter coil technologies are becoming more popular in modern air conditioning and refrigeration systems because they have better rates of heat transfer than conventional sized condenser and evaporator coils with round copper tubes and aluminium or opper fin that have been the standard in the HVAC industry. Small diameter coils can withstand the higher pressures required by the new generation of environmentally friendlier refrigerants. Two small diameter coil technologies are currently available for air conditioning and refrigeration products: copper microgroove[15] and brazed aluminium microchannel. [16] Choosing the right heat exchanger (HX) requires some knowledge of the different heat exchanger types, as well as the environment where the unit must operate.Typically in the manufacturing industry, several differing types of heat exchangers are used for just the one process or system to derive the final product. For example, a kettle HX for pre-heating, a double pipe HX for the ‘carrier’ fluid and a plate and frame HX for final cooling. With sufficient knowledge of heat exchanger types and operating requirements, an appropriate selection can be made to optimise the process. [17] Monitoring and maintenance Online monitoring of commercial heat exchangers is done by tracking the overall heat transfer coefficient. The overall heat transfer coeffi cient tends to decline over time due to fouling.U=Q/A? Tlm By periodically calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient from exchanger flow rates and temperatures, the owner of the heat exchanger can estimate when cleaning the heat exchanger is economically attractive. Integrity inspection of plate and tubular heat exchanger can be tested in situ by the conductivity or helium gas methods. These methods confirm the integrity of the plates or tubes to prevent any cross contamination and the condition of the gaskets. Mechanical integrity monitoring of heat exchanger tubes may be conducted through Nondestructive methods such as eddy current testing.Fouling Main article: Fouling A heat exchanger in a steam power station contaminated with macrofouling. Fouling occurs when impurities deposit on the heat exchange surface. Deposition of these impurities can decrease heat transfer effectiveness significantly over time and are caused by: * Low wall shear stress * Low fluid velocities * Hi gh fluid velocities * Reaction product solid precipitation * Precipitation of dissolved impurities due to elevated wall temperatures The rate of heat exchanger fouling is determined by the rate of particle deposition less re-entrainment/suppression.This model was originally proposed in 1959 by Kern and Seaton. Crude Oil Exchanger Fouling. In commercial crude oil refining, crude oil is heated from 21  °C to 343  °C prior to entering the distillation column. A series of shell and tube heat exchangers typically exchange heat between crude oil and other oil streams to heat the crude to 260  °C prior to heating in a furnace. Fouling occurs on the crude side of these exchangers due to asphaltene insolubility. The nature of asphaltene solubility in crude oil was successfully modeled by Wiehe and Kennedy. 18] The precipitation of insoluble asphaltenes in crude preheat trains has been successfully modeled as a first order reaction by Ebert and Panchal[19] who expanded on the work of Ke rn and Seaton. Cooling Water Fouling. Cooling water systems are susceptible to fouling. Cooling water typically has a high total dissolved solids content and suspended colloidal solids. Localized precipitation of dissolved solids occurs at the heat exchange surface due to wall temperatures higher than bulk fluid temperature. Low fluid velocities (less than 3  ft/s) allow suspended solids to settle on the heat exchange surface.Cooling water is typically on the tube side of a shell and tube exchanger because it's easy to clean. To prevent fouling, designers typically ensure that cooling water velocity is greater than 0. 9 m/s and bulk fluid temperature is maintained less than 60  °C. Other approaches to control fouling control combine the â€Å"blind† application of biocides and anti-scale chemicals with periodic lab testing. Maintenance Plate heat exchangers must be disassembled and cleaned periodically. Tubular heat exchangers can be cleaned by such methods as acid cleani ng, sandblasting, high-pressure water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill rods.In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment such as purification, addition of chemicals, and testing, is used to minimize fouling of the heat exchange equipment. Other water treatment is also used in steam systems for power plants, etc. to minimize fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and other equipment. A variety of companies have started using water borne oscillations technology to prevent biofouling. Without the use of chemicals, this type of technology has helped in providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers. In nature HumansThe human nasal passages serve as a heat exchanger, which warms air being inhaled and cools air being exhaled. You can demonstrate its effectiveness by putting your hand in front of your face and exhaling, first through your nose and then through your mouth. Air exhaled through your nose is substantially cooler. [20][21] In species that have e xternal testes (such as humans), the artery to the testis is surrounded by a mesh of veins called the pampiniform plexus. This cools the blood heading to the testis, while reheating the returning blood. Birds, fish, marine mammalsCountercurrent exchange conservation circuit Further information: Countercurrent exchange in biological systems â€Å"Countercurrent† heat exchangers occur naturally in the circulation system of fish, whales and other marine mammals. Arteries to the skin carrying warm blood are intertwined with veins from the skin carrying cold blood, causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with the cold venous blood. This reduces the overall heat loss in cold waters. Heat exchangers are also present in the tongue of baleen whales as large volumes of water flow through their mouths. 22][23] Wading birds use a similar system to limit heat losses from their body through their legs into the water. Carotid rete The carotid rete is a counter-current heat exchangi ng organ in some ungulates. The blood ascending the carotid arteries on its way to the brain, flows via a network of vessels where heat is discharged to the veins of cooler blood descending from the nasal passages. The carotid rete allows Thomson's gazelle to maintain its brain almost 3 °C cooler than the rest of the body, and therefore aids in tolerating bursts in metabolic heat roduction such as associated with outrunning cheetahs (during which the body temperature exceeds the maximum temperature at which the brain could function). [24] In industry Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale industrial processes. The type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a process depending on the type of fluid, its phase, temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical composition and various other thermodynamic properties.In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a heat stream that is being exhausted, heat exch angers can be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a different stream in the process. This practice saves a lot of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other streams from the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external source that is more expensive and more harmful to the environment. Heat exchangers are used in many industries, including: * Waste water treatment Refrigeration * Wine and beer making * Petroleum refining In waste water treatment, heat exchangers play a vital role in maintaining optimal temperatures within anaerobic digesters to promote the growth of microbes that remove pollutants. Common types of heat exchangers used in this application are the double pipe heat exchanger as well as the plate and frame heat exchanger. In aircraft In commercial aircraft heat exchangers are used to take heat from the engine's oil system to heat cold fuel. 25] This improves fuel efficiency, as well as reduces the possibility of water entrapped in the fu el freezing in components. [26] Early 2008, a Boeing 777 flying as British Airways Flight 38 crashed just short of the runway. In an early-2009 Boeing-update sent to aircraft operators, the problem was identified as specific to the Rolls-Royce engine oil-fuel flow heat exchangers. [26] Other heat exchangers, or Boeing 777 aircraft powered by GE or Pratt and Whitney engines, were not affected by the problem. [26]

Mengchao Essay

Arley Merchandise Corporation Objectives and Synopsis Teaching Plan This teaching plan organizes the class as follows: Valuation of the Arley â€Å"right† †¢ Why include the ten-year note alternative? †¢ American- vs. European-style exercise? †¢ Similarities to a convertible subordinated debenture †¢ The choice made and the aftermath †¢ Valuation of the Arley â€Å"Right† Consider first the case where the right is exercisable into $8 of cash. The unit proposed for sale in the Arley financing then can be characterized as the sale of a share of common stock plus a two-year European put option with a strike price of $8 or, alternatively, through put-call parity, as the sale of a two-year zero-coupon note with face value $8 plus a two-year European call option on common stock with an exercise price of $8. Thus, the value of the unit can be broken down in two ways: Market value of the unit = Market value of stock + market value of put option = Market value of zero-coupon bond + market value of call option Applying the Black-Scholes model with a two-year riskless rate of 11% per  annum, an initial stock price of $6.50, and a volatility of 40% (as indicated in the assignment question), yields values of the put and call options of $1.44 and $1.45, respectively.1 Exhibit 4 shows historical volatility data for comparable firms. The instructor can engage the students in a discussion of how to use this information in the analysis. The Appendix to this teaching note contains a discussion of these comparables and sensitivity analysis. However, Black-Scholes is not necessarily applicable because of default risk associated with this particular put option. That is, put option holders will wish to exercise their right to receive cash at precisely the time that Arley’s stock is low, which is also when the firm will least be able to fund the $8 payment. Thus, the standard Black-Scholes formula, which assumes no default risk in the option, will overestimate the value of the right. To correct ly value the put option requires a model of default risk in addition to the underlying equity risk.2 Luckily, in this instance, the above put-call parity relation provides a simple and indirect way of valuing the right, since it separates stock price risk from default risk. There is little, if any, default risk associated with the call option, as holders will wish to exercise their right at a time when the firm 1 The put and call values are almost equal since the strike price of $8 is very close to the beginning stock price of $6.50 plus  riskless interest. 2 See, for example, H. Johnson and R. Stultz (1987), â€Å"The pricing of options with default risk,† Journal of Finance, 42, 267-280. What remains is to value the zero-coupon note. This is a question purely of credit risk, the price of which can be approximated using Exhibit 5, which contains yields on straight debt of lowrated issuers comparable to Arley. The issues in the Exhibit are priced at spreads as high as 3.5% over Treasurys. Arley’s subordinated debt would probably carry a Ba or B rating, and would thus require a yield at the high end of the range. Assuming a flat term structure for the credit spread, the required spread on two-year Arley debt is about 3.5%, or a yield-to-maturity of 14.5%. Discounting $8 at 14.5% per annum for two years gives a value for the two-year zero-coupon note of $6.10. Adding the value of the two-year note ($6.10) to the value of the call option ($1.45) yields an estimate of $7.55 for the value of the total package. The implied value of the put option is therefore $7.55 – $6.50 = $1.05. The implied value of the put option is therefore $7.55 – $6.50 = $1.05. This can be summarized as: Note + Call $6.10 + $1.45 = Unit = Stock + Put = $7.55 = $6.50 + $1.05 The difference of $0.39 between this value of the put option and the Black-Scholes value of the put option ($ 1.44) is the diminution in value of the option due to issuer default risk. The analysis so far has assumed that the put option is exercisable into cash. In general, and ceteris paribas, the issuer’s option to substitute debt for cash upon exercise of the option reduces the value of the right even further. However, this assumes the stock price of $6.50 is unaffected by the nature of this contract. For example, the flexibility to substitute debt for cash may significantly reduce the likelihood of financial distress and enhance overall firm value. Here, the value of the right is likely to be significantly diminished by the flexibility to substitute debt since the debt is unlikely to be worth as much as $8.00/ unit when issued. In late 1982 and early 1983, the lowest class of investment grade debt (Baa) sold at a yield of about 125% of the ten-year Treasury debt yield. Baa debt was trading at a yield which was only 116% of ten-year Treasury yields. As surmised earlier, Arley’s subordinated debt would probably carry a Ba or B rating, and would thus require a yield substantially higher than Baa-rated debt. In addition, the maximum issue size of subordinated debt issued in exchange for Arley units would amount to only about $6 million (750,000 x $8.00). Trading would be extremely thin and the issue would be highly illiquid. It would trade at a still higher yield for this reason. In all, it appears that the Arley package was somewhat overvalued by the underwriters (assuming a value of $6.50 for the common stock). Why Include the Ten-Year Note Alternative? The information asymmetry issue raised earlier in this note is important in understanding the significance of the inclusion of the ten-year note  alternative. The strength of management’s conviction regarding the certainty of future forecasts can be reflected in the form in which it chooses options for honoring the guarantee obligation. Management’s stock ownership position will also play an important role in this choice. A management with little stock ownership will convey the strongest position of certainty if it restricted its options in honoring the guarantee to only cash. The weakest conviction will be conveyed 3 if the options included the exchange of the right for additional common shares to bring the value of each Arley unit up to $8.00. This outcome would simply reallocate the equity value among Arley’s shareholders without exposing the management to any default risk and potential loss of employment. In companies where management owns little stock, as the options available for meeting the guarantee expand along the spectrum of cash, senior debt, subordinated debt, preferred stock, and common stock, the strength of management’s conviction about the future should decrease in the minds of investors. A management with significant stock ownership would convey the strongest  position of certainty if shareholders could collect their value guarantee in either cash or market value of common stock at the option of the owner of the right. This arrangement would expose management to both default risk (and possible loss of jobs) as well as disastrous dilution of their accumulated wealth position if the stock price declined but the company was not in danger of default on the put. The underwriters have suggested a prudent and practical position with regard to the form of the options the company will have available for honoring the guarantee, but (given the fact that Arley’s management owned over 50% of the company’s stock) this is also one of the weakest positions possible in terms of the persuasive power of its information content to investors. Information content is obviously only one factor for Arley to consider in making its decision. The need to preserve financial flexi bility under adverse circumstances is probably the most critical factor, and Arley’s management would retain this flexibility, in the form of the option, to issue a subordinated debt to honor the guarantee. American- vs. European-Style Exercise? A design question was whether holders of the security should be able to exercise their right at a specific point in time (European-style), or at any time until the expiration date (American-style). Arley favored a European-style exercise option. This made it possible to plan for and finance a mass redemption, rather than confronting one at an unexpected and inconvenient time. Similarities to a Convertible Subordinated Debenture The proposed Arley security can be viewed as a convertible subordinated debenture with somewhat unusual terms. The principal variations are: The conversion period expires in two years instead of spanning the life of the debenture (or until the debenture was called); In exchange for a two-year grace period on interest payments, Arley unit owners will receive what is intended to be a â€Å"market rate† of interest on the security for the balance of its life. Normally, convertible subordinated debentures carry a below-market rate of interest (Exhibit 5); The life of the issue is twelve years rather than the more typical twenty to twenty-five years for a convertible subordinated debenture (Exhibit 5). Since the Arley issue is conceptually and economically similar to a convertible subordinated debenture, why didn’t Arley simply issue a convertible subordinated debenture with terms  equivalent to the proposed Arley units? There were two good reasons favoring the proposed Arley issue: Since Arley had no publicly traded common stock, buyers of any Arley convertible subordinated debenture would have no traded equity security against which to price the debenture. A liquidity problem (only 6,000 debentures would be available for trading) would exacerbate the pricing difficulty. †¢ The â€Å"retail optics† of the Arley issue are better than the equivalent convertible subordinated debenture. The proposed Arley unit can be marketed as an issue with a two-year money-back guarantee. The unit would almost certainly be sold to retail investors and might trade at a higher price than the equivalent convertible subordinated debenture. The Choice Made and the Aftermath The proposed Arley unit was sold in the form described in the case on November 14, 1984. Management had hoped that the units could be described as equity, but Arley’s accountants had argued that the securities would have to be accounted for on a line entitled â€Å"Common stock subject to repurchase under Rights,† which fell between the debt and equity accounts on the Arley balance sheet. The operating performance of the company and the performance of its stock price following the offering were both disappointing. Earnings per share fell (versus the similar quarter in the prior year) for five successive quarters immediately following the offering (Exhibit TN-1). The  price of the Arley units fell after the offering, and did not recover to $8.00/unit for fifteen months (Exhibit TN-2). The right traded well below the anticipated level of $1.50. Trading volume in the units and common shares combined averaged only about 50,000 per month, or about 1,500 per trading day. Vo lume in the rights averaged only 1,000 per trading day. In July, 1986, Arley management announced that they had agreed to accept a leveraged buyout offer at $10.00/share for all of the company’s common stock from a group of middle-level managers at the company. In May, 1985, a similar offering was made by Gearhart Industries which raised $85 million at a premium of 23% above its then common stock price of $10.75/share. This offering featured five put dates at one-year intervals from one to six years following the offering date. The company also had the option to honor the put (at a price which escalated above the $13.25/unit issue price at the rate of 10%/ year) in common stock or preferred stock as well as subordinated debt. The option to satisfy the guarantee with an equity security removed the need to characterize the security as anything other than equity for accounting purposes. Gearhart’s stock price collapsed after the offering. The right was designed to put a floor under the value of the Gearhart unit at the $13.25 offering price but this obviously was not the case as shown in Exhibit TN-3. The Arley and Gearhart cases are good examples of situations where the risk of default can enter significantly into the value of a put option. Here, it is when the put is to the company itself rather than to a third party of high credit quality. Exhibit TN-1 Arley Merchandise Corporation Earnings Per Share by Calendar Quarter, 1983-1986 1983 1984 1st Quarter .20 2nd Quarter .33 .20 .25 4th Quarter .30 *.28 1986 .16 .20 .08 .22 .20 op yo 3rd Quarter 1985 * First Earnings Report following Initial Public Offering. November 1984 Share + Right 5 1/2 1/2 January 1985 6 1/2 1/2 February 6 1/8 N.A. March 6 7/8 1/8 7 April 6 1/2 1/8 6 5/8 May 6 3/4 1/8 6 7/8 June 6 3/8 1/8 6 1/2 July 6 1/8 3/8 6 1/2 August 5 7/8 5/8 6 1/2 September 5 3/4 3/4 6 1/2 October 5 3/4 1 1/8 6 7/8 tC op yo December 6 7 N.A. November 6 7/8 6 7/8 December 5 7/8 3/4 6 5/8 January 1986 5 7/8 1 1/4 7 1/8 February 6 7/8 N.A. N.A. 7 7/8 1/8 8 7 7/8 1/8 8 March April November 1985 7 1/4 4 1/8 December 7 5/8 3 3/8 January 1986 5 1/4 4 7/8 February 4 3/8 6 March 3 3/4 6 April 2 5/8 3 3/4 6 3/8 May 3 1/4 4 1/4 7 1/2 Share + Right 11 3/8 11 10 1/8 10 3/8 9 3/4 Appendix Comparables and sensitivity analysis Normally, students encountering options are given either historical or implied volatility data. In this instance, as Arley does not yet have publicly traded stock, neither of these standard sources of data is available. However, the case does give data on a set of comparable firms; none had traded options, so all of the data given is historical volatilities. The instructor can engage students on the issue of how to use this volatility data. The average volatility ranges from 18% to 39%, and averages 28% for the most recent volatility and 29% for the average volatility over the prior five years. Yet the assignment question asks the student to use a 40% volatility. Why would Arley probably have a higher volatility than the average home furnishing manufacturer; more generally, what would drive volatility? Students may recognize that volatility should be related to fundamental business risk, which in turn would be related to the instability of supply  and demand, as well as variable competition. More narrowly, one might expect that firms with higher fixed costs might experience higher volatility as well as firms with greater debt, as operating or financial leverage would amplify movements in firm value for shocks in the underlying business. They might also expect that smaller firms might have greater volatility, in part due to lower scale economies. An especially diligent student might calculate the relationships between the volatilities in Exhibit 4 with firm size (market value of equity plus firm value of debt), firm leverage (debt divided by market size), or profitability. Using average volatility as a measure, she would find the coefficients on these relationships to be directionally correct (higher volatilities on smaller firms, more levered firms and less profitable firms), but in an OLS framework, none are close to conventional significance levels. Given the uncertainty in volatilities, students might calculate the sensitivity of option values to various levels of volatility. The table below shows this sensitivity for various volatilities as well as for various maturities. Note: this table uses the two-year risk free rate from Exhibit 7 (11.14%) which is quoted on a bond-equivalent yield basis, so the numbers will vary slightly from those in the text. VOLATILITY RANGE 25% 30% 35% 1.07 $ 1.20 $ 1.33  $ 0.88 $ 1.06 $ 1.24  $ 0.73 $ 0.93 $ 1.13   $ 0.61 $ 0.81 $ 1.02  $ 0.51 $ 0.71 $ 0.92  $ 25% 0.39 $ 0.94  $ 1.45  $ 1.92  $ 2.36  $ 30% 0.52  $ 1.12  $ 1.65  $ 2.13  $ 2.56  $ 35% 0.65  $ 1.29  $ 1.85  $ 2.34  $ 2.76  $ 40% 0.78  $ 1.47  $ 2.05  $ 2.54  $ 2.97  $ 45% 1.59  $ 1.59  $ 1.52  $ 1.43  $ 1.33  $ 50% 1.72  $ 1.76  $ 1.71  $ 1.63  $ 1.53  $ 45% 0.91  $ 1.65  $ 2.24  $ 2.75  $ 3.18  $ 50% 1.04 1.82 2.43 2.95 3.38 40%  $ 1.46  $ 1.41  $ 1.33  $ 1.23  $ 1.12  $ Do No tC PUTS $1.41 20% 1 $ 0.95 2 $ 0.70 3 $ 0.53 4 $ 0.41 5 $ 0.32 ^Time to maturity CALLS $1.47 20% 1 $ 0.27 2 $ 0.76 3 $ 1.25 4 $ 1.72 5 $ 2.17 rP os t

Quality Assurance Program for Moose Winooskis Restaurnat Essay

Quality Assurance Program for Moose Winooskis Restaurnat - Essay Example However, merely philosophizing about the importance of strategy or publishing statements of management's support of the notion is not enough. Moose Winooski's has introduced quality assurance programs aimed to improve service quality, sustain strong brand image and leading position of the market. In Moose Winooski's, Quality Assurance (QA) programs involve all departments and employees. What is required is a business process to aid organizations in focusing their total quality efforts on issues that most directly support strategy. By focusing on the quality strategy, Moose Winooski's makes significant progress toward the overall goal of increasing customer satisfaction. Organizationally, QA can be seen as a new philosophy of business and a part of culture (Goetsch and Davis 2003). A proper balance of these actions results in working more effectively together toward increasing overall quality. Moose Winooski's there is a need to adopt quality as a business strategy whereby workers would enjoy the working environment and be proud of the resulting products or services. Part of achieving this result is encouraging and managing the participation of these workers in their day-to-day jobs (Goetsch and Davis 2003). For instance, the standards of the company are based three keys: 'pe rformance, support and innovation' (Moose Tracks 2007). At the organizational level, QA programs are determined by careful planning, control and feedback mechanisms. Personally, QA means commitment and high level of responsibilities, sense of belonging and support for success, effective teamwork and positive culture. Moose Winooski's states that: "our goals, passions, and values are the foundation of Moose Winooski's, and the source of six principles that guide out behavior and the conduct of our business: hospitality, respect, fairness, fun, sharing, and courage" (Moose Tracks 2007). There are no differences in view points because in Moose Winooski's, management provides leadership and direction to each level of the organization. The key is to provide each function with a clear understanding of its specific role in implementing organizational strategy. Each member of Moose Winooski's is then in a position to offer and implement suggestions and process improvements specifically designed to support the strategy (Goetsch and Davis 2003). With a shared understanding of the strategy and quality assurance management more effectively and efficiently manage organizational efforts. Managers are responsible for providing active leadership to the organization. This includes providing feedback, encouragement, constructive criticism, and discipline so that a pervasive, well-understood success paradigm exists and all team members know their expected role. Employees in Moose Winooski's are responsible for fully participating in the strategy development process. They then embrac e the resulting plans and do their part to implement them fully. Finally, they should approach their day-to-day job in a way that supports the organization's goals (Marath and Turnbull, 1998). QA programs are designed to link with organization's goals and strategies, vision and aims. In general, QA programs are based on four main functions of management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. There are very clear and distinct roles for both managers and employees

Amendments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Amendments - Essay Example Prior to these amendments, some states had already made their own ratifications of the constitutional contingents, which prompted the need to limit the powers of the federal government with regard to investigation, prosecution and punishment of crime (Calvin, 2009). The original constitution offered very little provisions touching on criminal processes (Calvin, 2009). A majority of the constitutional amendments were mainly focused on addressing issues relating to criminal processes. Fifteen of the twenty six rights contained in the first eight amendments to the constitution focus mainly on addressing the criminal and judicial processes. These amendments were created based on a perspective that emerged in the late 18th century about individual rights. Initially, the amendments were meant to only be applicable to the federal government, but with time, states started adopting most of the provisions in the amendments (David & James, 2008). In order to fully understand the impact of these amendments on the judicial processes in both juvenile and adult courts, it is important to first and foremost understand the phrase â€Å"principles of due process† as used in the 5th amendment (John, 2006). Due process of law implies that all laws be applied equally and fairly to all American citizens, and most importantly those suspected to have committed crimes. The fourth amendment protects citizens from unreasonable seizures and searches of their houses, and their property (John, 2006). This amendment limits the powers of the central government when conducting criminal investigations. The government cannot unlawfully enter a suspect’s house or any of his or her property, papers among other things to look for evidence. Search warranties supported by affirmation or Oath have to be issued so as to enable the police to conduct searches. Interpretations of the amendment by the Supreme Court restricted police searches and seizures only to the suspect’s bodies an d clothes, the things they have in plain sight, the places or things that the accused is in control or which he could reach and property where the police strongly suspect that a person could be in danger (Calvin, 2009). This amendment had a great impact on criminal proceedings. It restricted the powers of the government in investigating crimes (Calvin, 2009). The amendment made it unlawful for the federal police to break in to suspect’s houses with the intention of searching and seizing some of the property purported to provide evidence of a crime. The police need to follow certain procedures, including obtaining a search warrants so as to be able to conduct houses and properties belonging to criminal suspects. The Fifth Amendment protects individuals from ‘double jeopardy’ (Calvin, 2009). This refers to the process of initiating a second trial for a person suspected to have committed the same crime. This amendment requires that before a person is any serious cri minal offence, there must be a thorough investigation by the jury linking him to the offense. This amendment also gives the defendant in a court process the right not to testify against himself, commonly known as the right to remain silent. The main intention of the

Jazz project 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Jazz project 2 - Essay Example Blues songs are not only written about the trials faced during the slave days, these songs are also written about the many trials that blacks have faced over time. After the slaves were freed, the black community had new challenges. While they were excited about being free and in charge of their own lives, there were still a number of obstacles that kept them from being equal to their white counterparts. Because of their inequality, the black community suffered significantly. For instance, the only jobs that were offered to black men were the jobs that their white counterparts were not interested in doing. These jobs usually consisted of back-breaking labor under harsh conditions. Some of the remedial tasks that blacks were forced to perform in order to make a living were working on farms or in the fields or the position of traveling minstrel (University of Scranton). Concerning the conditions under which the blacks were forced to work, one article titled â€Å"Life after the Thirteenth Amendment† states that though blacks were free from slavery; their jobs were similar to what they had to do while they were slaved. Laws were passed to keep blacks in poverty, such as prohibiting them from owning land, imposing stiff fines if they were not working (It was tough to find a suitable job due to severe racial discrimination and lack of work for blacks that did not cause them to take up positions of servitude.), and they could be sold into what was called virtual slavery if they were unable to pay the fines imposed upon them. What’s more, black children could be forced to work as apprentices (Thomas). It would be a very long time before blacks had the true equality that they deserved. Along with the inequality that the black community has suffered, they dealt with a number of other troubles. Blues songs were composed to help them cope with such troubles, as well as being a way to vent out their frustrations. Blues’ songs were sung about the themes that

Confession Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Confession - Case Study Example Fiona, who has a mental age of 12, is also questioned before the arrival of her solicitor and she admits after 2 hours of questioning that she did assist Elizabeth, but she only did so because she finds her intimidating. Elizabeth and Fiona have previous convictions for burglary and theft and are anxious that these should not be revealed to the jury. Elizabeth informs you that she was at home with her partner James at the time of the alleged offence and has therefore been wrongfully charged. Elizabeth instructs you that James is willing to give evidence on her behalf. Fiona claims that she did inform the interviewing officer of her wish to have her solicitor present before she was interviewed, the officer she claims offered to deal with her leniently if she admitted to her participation in the offence. Are the confessions obtained by the police from Elizabeth and Fiona in the interview admissible as evidence in the offence charged against them Is James qualified to give testimonial evidence in behalf of Elizabeth And will the previous conviction of Elizabeth and Fiona for burglary and theft admissible as evidence against them in this case The current laws of the United Kingdom admit confession as a form of testimonial evidence in an offence charged against a defendant. However, in order to be admissible, a confession is subject to certain conditions or requirements. Confession that was obtained through oppression or violation of the defendant's (human) rights is excluded or inadmissible as evidence in the offence charged against him. To understand the admissibility of the confessions and to answer other relevant issues in this case, it is first essential to analyze history, definition and the conditions for a confession to be admissible as evidence in criminal cases. Historical Perspectives on the Issues Relating to Confessions Most of the decisions in criminal cases at the United Kingdom were based on common law. Under this law, evidence even if improperly obtained is admissible as long as it is relevant to an issue of a case. "A trial judge has no discretion to refuse the acceptance of relevant evidences on the ground that it was improperly obtained or obtained through unfair means" (R v Sang, 1979, UKHL 3). However, with the passage of time, new codes were passed in the United Kingdom that limited or modified the use of common law in deciding cases. Important of these laws are the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, herein referred to as PACE 1984, and the Criminal Justice Act 2003 that will be the primary bases of the arguments to be laid down in this presentation. The Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984 (PACE) (1984 c. 60) is an Act of Parliament which instituted a legislative framework for the powers of police officers in England and Wales to combat crime, as well as providing codes of practice for the exercise of this powers" On the other hand, the Criminal Justice Act of 2003 provides guidelines on the admissibility in criminal proceedings of various evidences. The passage of these laws gave a new requirement for evidence to be admissible in criminal cases, that is, competency. In general, evidence is admissible in court proceedings if it is competent and relevant. Evidence is competent if it is not excluded by any rule of law, and it is relevant if it has a logical connection in the facts in issue. Evidence obtained violating these requirements is inadmissible in cour

Communication and Patient Safety Research Design Paper

Communication and Patient Safety Design - Research Paper Example The paper "Communication and Patient Safety Research Design" looks at how samples can be taken without any discrimination. The paper discusses various ways to collect and analyze data before coming up with a strong conclusion based on the research findings and results. The conclusion of this paper is very important to nurses and caregivers as they realize the importance of effective communication in the healthcare facility. Effective communication is vital to the safety of every patient and every nurse is aware of that. For a patient to have a positive outcome, nurses are expected to understand their problems and to effectively communicate with them, noting critical areas that mostly affect the patient. With communication, the nurse is able to identify problems and come up with various ways to solve the problems that the patient might have. It is, however, a common scenario to find that nurses do not provide effective communication to patients and, as a result, cause complications. M ost nurses believe that there is no mathematical proof to evidence that effective communication is vital to positive patient safety and as a result, end up ignoring this very important concept of communication. This paper critically analyzes a sample population of patients to come up with a statistical proof that effective communication is vital to a positive safety outcome from the patient. Is there a mathematical proof that effective communication is vital to patient’s safety? There is a correlation between effective patient communication.... Literature Review For many years, professional nurses have tried to link effective communication to positive patient feedback. Many articles written on this topic bring out varying importance of effective communication to the positive outcome of the patient. One article by Frankel identified that for a patient to show positive results, it was necessary for all parties to have an effective communication with each other. Nurses and caregivers have to understand the patients by involving them in various clinical procedures. Factors that influence communication were also identified. The key factor that was identified was the system that the entire hospital used. Some hospitals and healthcare facilities have large and complicated systems that make it hard for patients to effectively communicate with healthcare providers. The larger and more complex the system of the hospital, the harder it is for the patients to effectively communicate with the healthcare providers. Due to this factor, it is necessary for healthcare facilities to ensure that their systems are simple to understand and that the hospital or healthcare facility is organized into departments that allow effective communication between the patient and the caregiver. Another factor that influenced communication between the patient and their caregiver is the nature of the patient. There are patients who are hard to understand. They are complicated and in most cases would not communicate effectively with the caregiver. This is one of the major communication challenges that a caregiver might face. When faced with any hostile patient who is not willing to provide any useful information that may help in their case, it is common for errors to occur. Thus, nurses should ensure that they fully understand their

BIOCHEMISTRY ASSIGNMNET Scholarship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

BIOCHEMISTRY ASSIGNMNET - Scholarship Essay Example Sci-Tech Encyclopedia information about ion exchange McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc Carl R. Kemnitz and Mark J. Loewen J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 2007; 129(9) pp 2521 - 2528 http://www.expasy.ch/ http://www.brenda.uni-koeln.de http://www.genome.ad.jp/dbget-bin/www_bgetec:1.5.1.34 Biochemistry Manual from http://mcb.berkeley.edu/ UniProtKB/TrEMBL Release 35.5 of 15-May-2007 UnitProt Taxonomy Browser. http://www.ebi.ac.uk/newt/display Protein Spotlight, 2004. Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics Q1. (30 marks) The following peptide, substance Z, was isolated from whale intestinal mucosa: GAKKIYPRVSACMIHGGAVIAIDMDGTDA The active peptide is amidated on the C-terminal amino acid. Draw the structure of the amidated amino acid residue. (5) The following reagents act on this peptide. Write out the products for each treatment, using the one-letter amino acid abbreviations. (6) a. Trypsin GAK---K---IYPR---VSACMIHGGAVIAIDMDGTDA b. Dansylchloride (first products) GAK---KIYPRVSACMIHGGAVIAIDMDGTDA c. Cyanogen bromide. GAKKIYPRVSACM---IHGGAVIAIDM---DGTDA Peptide Z is an inactive precursor. It is converted to the active peptide by hydrolysis with chymotrypsin. The larger product of the hydrolysis is the active peptide. Draw the structure of the active peptide. (8) GAKKIYPRVSACM---IH---GGAVIAIDM---DGTDA Q2. (30 marks) a) Read up about leucine zipper proteins and answer the following questions. Keep answers brief. - What is the characteristic structural feature of these proteins What forces keep the zipper zipped up These proteins are characterized by two helices that look like a zipper with leucine residues lining on the inside of the zipper. The hydrophobic interactions of the branched chain of the...In this way, the larger molecules of the inactive peptide would not be able to bind to the stationary phase and therefore, will be eluted first. And after this, a strong acid exchanger can be used to facilitate the dissociation of the active peptide with the stationary phase. Enzyme activity at 5 hours was measured as DA min-1 = 0.15. The protein concentration of the stock enzyme solution used for the assay of activity was 50 mg ml-1. Details of the assay are given in Q4. Assume e for the product was 800 L mol-1 cm-1 at the wavelength used, and measurements were made in a cuvette of 1 cm light path. Calculate the specific activity of the enzyme after it had been treated for 5 hours at 25o. Express your answer as mmoles product produced per minute per mg protein. Set all your calculations out clearly. Peptide Z is an inactive precursor. It is converted to the active peptide by hydrolysis with chymotrypsin. The larger product of the hydrolysis is the active peptide. Draw the structure of the active peptide. (8) - What is the characteristic structural feature of these proteins What forces keep the zipper zipped up These proteins are characterized by two helices that look like a zipper with leucine residues lining on the inside of the zipper. The hydrophobic interactions of the branched chain of the leucine residues keep the helices in place. - What is the role of the zipper in these proteins - In pri

Virtue and Happiness Essay Example for Free

Virtue and Happiness Essay There are so many different circumstances under which someone will perform an action that it can be confusing when to determine if an action is virtuous. There can be factors of ignorance or factors of pressure to do certain actions. Pressure, ignorance, or reward can have a various affects on a person’s choices about virtuous acts but when it causes his or her moral actions to be compromised, then only certain situations can pressure or ignorance be an excuse. Courage is a virtue that can be determined by choices that a person can make. A person that only does an act because he sees some personal gain from the act such as saving a child from a fire may not have committed a virtuous act because of the motive behind it such as fame or honor. However, a person who has done a virtuous act can still be honored and glorified with the act still being virtuous. If that person were held at gunpoint and told to save the child, if he performed the act it would be hard to determine if it was truly virtuous. It does not mean that it was not a virtuous act, but it would be hard to tell what the motive was behind the action. Near the end of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle talks about the range of peoples characteristics. Aristotle states that the: â€Å"†¦of the moral states to be avoided there are three kinds-vice, incontinence, brutishness. † (Aristotle. Page 157.) Aristotle states that there are the opposites of these which are virtue, continence, and the super-virtue. Vice would mean the person knows what they are doing is wrong but does it regardless. Incontinence would mean that a person has an incorrect moral that they act on, causing them to act in a manner that was not virtuous. And brutishness would be a person acting purely on urge and having no emotional or rational or even irrational thought behind what they are doing. It would be primarily animalistic in nature. Looking at Aristotle’s view on â€Å"the best life† or a â€Å"happy life,† it can be seen that virtue is what he really believes will lead to a â€Å"good† life. The fact that there are many different ways in which someone may be virtuous or not shows that acting on desire can be right as well as wrong. And many different situations can determine this right or wrong act. Aristotle states that one must fulfill the desire for happiness by virtuous means and that our rational mind can lead us away from the correct way of fulfilling our ultimate desire.

Art And Hyper Reality In Animation How Have Things Changed Film Essay

Art And Hyper Reality In Animation How Have Things Changed Film Essay Introduction In this dissertation I will be posing the question Art and hyper reality in animation and how have things changed? A lot of commercial animation today is being pushed by 3D computer technology and the audience perceptions of the true meaning of animation had been clouded by this new era of animated film. I want to find out about the commercial acceptance of animation and the history behind it. This is an interesting subject area because a lot has changed in the past 50 years in terms of animation and moving image. I will be finding out how recent technological advancements in creating realistic looking visuals has effected how we perceive animation and if it has retracted from the original statement that animation is an art form. Recent commercial animation being produced is full of realistic 3D computer graphics therefore moving away from the more traditional 2D animation process. I want to find out why using a sense of visual realism in animation has become the norm. By looking at a range of hyper realistic animation such as Final Fantasy I will be able to find out why they have become so accepted and how the modern audience have adapted their tastes to this new form of representation in cinema. Modernism and post-modernism movements were very powerful in the art world and I want to see how breaking away from a certain way of working brings a new wave of creation, this chapter can be applied to animation in the way that animation has broken away from using pencils and now rely heavily on computer technology. I will also be looking into animators that were the pioneers of the animated form and what they were trying to achieve in the early stages of this emerging medium. These early animators were seen as being experimental because they were the first people that were doing this kind of work. Also by looking into Disney and the way he managed to commercialise animation will give clues as to how 3D computer animation has done the same thing with the likes of Pixar. Audience trends play a big role into finding out about commercialisation and how society/ culture can affect certain trends. By looking into the re-invention of cinema and its audiences I will be able to find out how these factors have changed how people perceive art in cinema. I will then summarise what I have learnt from doing this dissertation and answer my title question in relation to the chapters I have discussed. Contents Reality effects in computer animation. My first chapter will be discussing reality effects in computer animation. I will be referencing an article by Lev Manovich and reviewing the content in this chapter. This article is relevant to the title question because it looks at how technology has affected the process of making realistic looking visuals. This chapter will help me to understand how visual realistic imagery has advanced and why 3D visuals are superseding traditional ways of working. I will also be mentioning and talking about some animated films which use computer technology and how they have helped push the boundaries of what can be achieved by using this technology. Animation and its progression to commercialism My second chapter will be looking into experimental animation which will discuss the reason why animation visuals dont have to make sense to still be true to the animated form. Experimental animation is a genre in itself and I will be looking at why new audiences want to see visually realistic imagery over an abstract film. I will also be discussing how Walt Disney commercialised animation and how this has changed the audiences perception of animation. This chapter will create a contrast between the first chapter and show just how different these animated practices are. Modern and post-modern movements My third chapter will be talking about the modern and post-modern movements and finding where animation fits into them. This will be interesting to look into because these movements can be applied to what is happening now such as cinema breaking away from more traditional 2D animation to 3D hyper realistic animation. Modern Audience in relation to animation My fourth chapter will be looking into audience trends in the cinema. This will help me to understand why audiences are becoming more and more comfortable with being exposed to computer generated imagery when 20 years ago the industry was more interested in traditional 2D and stop motion imagery. Conclusion My final chapter will be concluding what I have studied in this dissertation and answering the title question. Chapter 1: Reality Effects in Computer Animation I will be reviewing the article, Reality Effects in Computer Animation by Lev Manovich, which is from Jayne Pillings book A Reader In Animation Studies London 1998. Lev Manovich is an author of new media books and a professor of Visual Arts, University of California, San Diego, U.S. where he teaches new media art and theory. I will also be discussing what methods animators go through to achieve a sense of realism. The purpose of the article is to identify how reality in animation and cinema first developed and how different levels of realism have affected these industries. The title question is important because the rapid growth of cinematic and computer technology is constantly changing the advances in reproducing reality. Therefore it is interesting to find out how other practitioners have identified the term realism and the impact their thoughts have had in defining the purpose of reality in computer animation. The main points I will be discussing in this review will be the compar isons between early attempts of realism and three dimensional computer graphics. I will also be discussing how the developments of new technology have further enhanced realism in regards to computer animation and cinema. This article starts with outlining the early discoveries of recreating the human form in a visual output such as paintings. Giotto di Bondone (an Italian painter) has been mentioned as being the first person to produce three-dimensional forms on a flat surface. He has been compared with his mentor Cenni di Pepo or also known as Cimabue who was also an Italian painter. Cimabues work in comparison with three-dimensional computer imagery is mentioned as having a more 2D look unlike Giotto whose work achieves a stronger 3D effect. This comparison is relevant to the realism debate because Giotto has been considered as the first great artist of the Italian Renaissance, which was a turning point in art history and the incorporation of realistic techniques. The article then goes on to say that A Renaissance painting and a computer image employ the same technique (a set of consistent depth cues) to create an illusion of space, existent or imaginary. However the difference between the mediums is that a viewer can now experience moving around a simulated three-dimensional space, which isnt possible with a painting. To then approach the problems of realism in three-dimensional computer animation Lev starts by looking at the arguments that have advanced in film theory in regards to cinematic realism. This is a good avenue to look down because a lot of computer animation is being incorporated into live-action films these days so a better understanding of cinema realism will further enhance the importance of reality effects in computer animation. However I think the incorporation of the Italian painters as a comparison to computer generated imagery is a bit dated and it would be beneficial if more modern examples were shown as computer animation is seen as a modern art form and it has only really been around since the 1950s. Technology has played a big part in making computer graphics look realistic and Lev had covered this topic in some detail. The term mimesis has been brought up in this section because the modern technology of cinema has been seen in Andrà © Basins eyes as being a realisation of this ancient myth. Mimesis is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings which include imitation, representation, mimicry, similarity and the art of resembling. Therefore mimesis can be related back to reality because the term explains certain factors that affect a realistic outcome such as the art of resembling. For example resemblance can also mean similarity, which is what commercial computer animation tries to recreate, taking a look at real life and recreating it in a virtual world. Manovich states each new technological development (e.g. sound, panchromatic stock, colour) points to the viewers just how un-realistic the previous image was and reminds them that the present ima ge, even though more realistic, will be superseded in the future- thus constantly sustaining the state of disavowal. So by something that is believed to be realistic at a certain period in time will soon become out-dated because technology is rapidly evolving, therefore the notion of never being able to recreate reality in regards to computer animation is an interesting concept and ideology. In terms of animation software Lev then goes on to say. New algorithms to produce new effects are constantly being developed. To stay competitive, a company has to quickly incorporate the new software into their offerings. The animations are designed to show off the latest algorithm. This statement backs up the technological advances in realistic looking computer graphics and can also explain how computer imagery is becoming ever more impressive and pioneering than the previous production. There are different levels of realism for example in animation practice the art of walk cycles display a realistic quality but they will never capture the true essence of the human form compared to live action. Whether a 3D character is walking, running or jumping, it is difficult to recreate a realistic sense of movement when working frame-by-frame. Footage created with frame-by-frame photography in 3D animation lacks the motion blur that occurs naturally when a figure moves in real time before a live action camera. So certain techniques that can be achieved using a computer that can control the motion and add a blur effect to create a realistic sense of movement. Rotoscoping is a technique that allows animators to trace over live action film one frame at a time therefore creating flawless movements and realism to any character or object. However this process is in a way cheating because no one is animating the movements but instead just tracing over and copying the movements that are already there, therefore loosing the skill and style of an animator. Human movements can also be captured by using a technique called motion capture. This technique uses sensors to record the movement of an object in live action, motion capture is a computer driven animation system which allows a director to rehearse and direct the movements of a three-dimensional character. Almost all 3D animation is shot horizontally on a set of some kind just like live action film whereas 2D is generally recorded from a camera placed overhead (vertically). The use of sets for 3D animation makes it possible to get a number of angles whilst filming the action, this way of filming can create a sense of realism to the audience. For example the use of these cinematic angles that are also used in live action film could make the audience believe that they ar e watching something real because the same shots are used in films when capturing real life actors. Jan Svankmajers Alice shot his live action/animation film at full scale placing his live actress and animated characters within what appears to be real rooms, or outside on a rocky terrain. The way in which this film was shot makes it realistic because of the mixture of a live action actress and animated real life objects such as the stuffed rabbit toy. Realism in animation can be good because the audience can relate to what they see and can almost gain comfort from what they know; such as the animated film Bolt where the dogs characteristics are so life like and realistic that you could imagine seeing this dog in real life. Final Fantasy the spirits within was a groundbreaking film at the time because of its hyper-realistic look. Roger Ebert was a strong advocate of the film; he gave it 3 ½ stars out of 4, praising it as a technical milestone while conceding that its nuts and bolts story lacked the intelligence and daring of, say, Steven Spielbergs A.I.. He noted that while he did not once feel convinced Aki Ross was an actual human being she was lifelike, stating her creators dare us to admire their craft. Ebert expressed a desire for the film to succeed in hopes of seeing more films made in its image, though he was sceptical of its ability to be accepted in the wider audience. This happened to be the case as the box office figures for Final Fantasy strongly indicate a lack of positive reaction from audiences, a fact further supported by the overwhelmingly poor response from film critics. To summarise, the terms reality and realism play a big part in computer animation because people are endlessly re-duplicating the visible so that the viewer can relate to the imagery and be impressed by what can be achieved using these technologies. Therefore the role of realism will always be apparent and a defining factor in computer animation. With the accessibility of the internet, freelance artists are constantly out-doing each other which is also driving the production of reality effects and advancements in technology. The article as a whole has shown me that reality in computer animation is a competitive business and that the technologies used to create these effects werent originally designed for entertainment purposes. I have found that not every theorist such as David Bordwell and Andrà © Bazin share the same views or opinions so it becomes difficult to get a true definition or the sense of a certain ideology. The possibilities of recreating reality effects in computer animation are endless because using 3D effects in cinema is becoming the norm almost. Moreover the demand for incredible effects and imaginative imagery is becoming more apparent every year because film makers know that this is what the audience wants to see. Also with the abundance of new technology, computerised imagery is becoming easier to create. Chapter 2: Animation and its progression to commercialism In the beginning all animation was experimental. Experimental animation can be seen as one of the realist form of animation because it is not trying to conform to a certain genre or ideology but rather lean towards an experimental, more abstract or random approach to what is being displayed. Film historian William Moritz quotes: No animation film that is not non-objective and/ or non- linear can really qualify as true animation, since the conventional linear representational story has long since been far better done in live-action. Here Moritz defines what may be regarded as a purist view of what properly constitutes as true animation. He is suggesting that the animated form is best shown when the concentration is purely on using, developing and experimenting with the unique vocabulary which is available only in animation. The freedom of animation has allowed certain animators and artists not to find appropriate means by which they express their vision, but to further progress the medium. Moreover the reason to push the boundaries of what an animator is doing makes an experimental piece truly experimental. Abstraction goes hand in hand with experimental animation because something being abstract can exist with a degree of independence from visual references in the world. Animators which pioneered this new animated art form such as Emile Cohl, Stuart Blackton and Windsor McCay used very basic ways of working mainly due to the fact that they didnt know any better or the technology wasnt available to them. Artists such as Jules Engel who began his animation career working on Disneys Fantasia and UPA cartoons refers to experimental animation as fine art animation because he sees his way of working as more of an art form rather than a commercialized commodity. There were animators that wanted commercial success for the fact that they wanted animation to be seen by everyone. Stuart Blacktons trick film, The Haunted Hotel further enhanced the view that the animated short mig ht become more commercially viable. Walt Disney was the man who broke away from experimental animation and brought a new era of animated film into the commercial limelight. Disney was the first to produce an animated feature-length film called Snow White. Critics however dubbed the project Disneys Folly and were certain that the project would destroy the Disney Studio. Walt used the Silly Symphonies as a platform for experiments in realistic human animation, distinctive character animation, special effects, and the use of specialized processes and apparatus such as the multiplane camera. Walts drive to perfect the art of animation was endless. Technicolor was introduced to animation during the production of his Silly Symphonies Cartoon Features. Walt Disney held the patent for Technicolor for two years, allowing him to make the only colour cartoons. This further held his grip on the animation industry at the time. Disney played an active role in behind the scenes in World War II. He was asked to create training and ins tructional films for the military, home-front morale-boosting shorts such as Der Fuehrers Face and the feature film Victory Through Air Power in 1943. It is clear that in the post-war period in America, Disney started to integrate himself into the world of politics. Disney was the founding member of the anti-communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals. However Disney was not an aggressive person and kept very reserved    in 1947, during the early years of the Cold War. Disney testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), where he branded Herbert Sorrell, David Hilberman and William Pomerance, former animators and labor union organizers, as Communist agitators. This was the start of Disney becoming a global brand and ultimately being boosted into the commercial spotlight. The development of Disney Land and Disney World soon rocketed Disneys success; these amusement parks especially in their early stages were Disneys personal proje cts. A pitch kit which was prepared for visitors to read when they enter through an entrance describes Disneyland in detail. The idea of Disneyland is a simple one. It will be a place for people to find happiness and knowledge. It will be a place for parents and children to share pleasant times in one anothers company, a place for teacher and pupils to discover greater ways of nostalgia of days gone by, and the younger generation can savor the challenge of the future. Here will be the wonders of nature and man for all to see and understand. This description of Disneyland also applies to everything that Disney represents and this is how his animation has skyrocketed into the mainstream by the fact that it is so universally appealing to all races and cultures. Pixar is an animation company that focuses on using computer generated imagery in their films. Pixar has gone from strength to strength because of their use of likable characters, engaging stories and visual aesthetics. You could compare Pixars recent success with how Disney first started. In the early 90s computer graphics, especially in commercial work was primarily used to create effects such as flying logos and morphing. Pixar settled into a niche by using computer animation to create character animation which very few studios at the time were doing. Most of the animators who started in Pixar used to work at Disney and in the spring of 1991, Pixar and Disney signed a co-production agreement for three pictures. So going back full circle, Disney was still at the forefront of the next revolution in animation. Toy Story was the first Disney/ Pixar film to be made and was released on November 22nd 1995. It became a phenomenon and ended up as the top grossing film of the year, as well as one of the best reviewed. Toy story was the first feature film to be entirely made using CGI which made people realize that using computers to create animation was a viable way of working. Soon after this revolution in computer animation, we soon start to see popular live action directors such as Steven Spielberg and James Cameron using this new medium in their films to create special effects. Working with this technology is cheaper than the old fashioned ways of working such as creating elaborate sets or real life explosions. CGI allows film makers to create the unimaginable and impossible because the only limitations of what can be achieved rests within our own imaginations. Moreover this allows certain films to have that wow factor that cinema audiences crave in a film. As technology has moved on many amateur film makers can also work with CGI because of affordable animation and compositing software, furthermore pushing the boundaries and the potential of what can be achieved with this relatively new medium. Traditional ways of working such as using animation cels and ink in an animated film have been shunned out in favour of CGI graphics. However many daytime cartoons such as Spongebob square pants are still made using these methods. Cartoons in the Golden Age of Hollywood animation were normally created in-house whereas nowadays cel animation is shipped off overseas to places such as Korea because they can be produced more cheaply. This then strips the amount of artistic talent and personalisation of the cartoon because of the mass production side of things. In the 1950s animators such as Tex Avery made cartoons to make people laugh, his mentality towards his cartoons was to think in gags and hold no restrictions to his drawings. Therefore the cartoons became a lot more personal. From watching some of Tex Averys animated cartoons we cant help but notice the amount of limited animation such as the holding of certain frames and gags. However this was a common occurrence from animations i n that time period. Blitz Wolf is an animation based upon Adolf Hitler; it is a brilliant piece of animation as well as a wonderful example of propaganda in wartime. In the short the wolfs car features a logo Der fewer (der better) brilliant in its simplicity. When the wolf steps outside with a leering face he watches the audience and shows a sign saying Go ahead and hiss, who cares a very good representation of Hitlers insolence before the war when he made some despicable acts that he didnt care were going to affect his international reputation. Tex a has a non-realist approach to animation because his cartoons encouraged animators to stretch the boundaries of the medium and do things in a cartoon that would not be possible in the world of live-action film. For example a scene in Dumb Hounded shows the wolf running down a flight of stairs at an impossible speed then enters a car before travelling around the world to get away from Droopy. Also in The Early Bird Dood It there is a sc ene where the chicken is chasing the worm with a wooden bat, soon after the chicken is staring a cat in the face and his wooden bat turns all floppy. A quoted line from Averys cartoons was, In a cartoon you can do anything, and his cartoons repeatedly did just that. In 2009 The Princess and the Frog was released by Disney. This film used traditional 2D hand drawn techniques mixed with digital drawn aspects such as the backgrounds and effects. This film showed that traditional 2D animation can still be achieved and still capture the attention and imagination of a modern audience, the film with its universal rating appealed to all ages. Chapter 3: Is Animation Seen As A Modernist Or Post-Modernist Art Form? Modernism and Post-modernism are two subjects that are constantly being discussed in the art world. For me to answer the title question thoroughly and informatively I must first address the main factors of this chapter, Modernism and Post-modernism. I will be discussing the history of Modernism, how the movement started and how it affected the art world. This will allow me to understand how to tackle the question for this chapter. I will be also be discussing the same points in relation to Post-modernism. After looking into these movements I will conclude my findings and incorporate my own personal opinions and thoughts about what I have found in my research. Looking into the history of animation will also be beneficial because this art form is an integral part of this chapter and dissertation. After gaining a better understanding of these movements I will be able to answer the question is animation is a modernist or post-modernist art form? Modern as a historical art term, refers to a period in history that dates roughly from the 1860s through the 1970s and is used to describe the style and the ideology of art produced during that era. The term Modernism is also used to refer to the art of the modern period and philosophy of Modern Art. The Modernist movement first emerged in 1862 and 1863 when the painting Le dà ©jeuner sur lherbe, which is French for The Lunch On The Grass; was created by Édouard Manet. This particular piece of art sparked controversy even to this day because it displayed nude women around fully clothed men, which was seen as indecent behaviour and a taboo subject in the time it was painted. Manet deliberately chose a large canvas size which were normally reserved for grander subjects therefore he broke the academic traditions of the time. But the question can be posed: Why did Manet paint Le Dà ©jeuner sur lherbe? My answer would be because he was interested in exploring new subject matter, new painting ideologies, and new ways of thinking. Therefore he rebelled against the conventional subject matters that were common in this period of history and adopted the new found modernist approach. The Modernist movement can be seen as a socially progressive trend of thought that encouraged human beings to create improve upon and redefine their environment with the help of experimentation, technology and an open mind with no boundaries. Avant-garde was the term given rather than Modernism at first, this term remained to describe the movements that identify themselves as attempting to overthrow or reinvent some aspect of tradition. The English dictionary refers the term Avant-garde as writers, artists, filmmakers, or musicians whose work is innovative, experimental, or unconventional and is considered as a group. I have included this dictionary reference to see if the term is described in the same way as the art world interprets it, because in some instances the true meaning and no tion of the word can be misrepresented. By 1930, Modernism had entered popular culture which sparked an influx in artistic movements. Abstract Expressionism, Minimalism, Dadaism and Pop art are a few movements that appeared throughout the 20th century. As Modernism started to flourish through the consumer/capitalist societies it soon entered mainstream popular culture which was the main factor the movement rejected in the first place. Therefore the movement had become so institutionalised that it was seen as post avant-garde and soon adopted the term Post-Modern. However for others such as art critic Robert Hughes they refer to post-modernism as being an extension of modernism. The postmodernist movement began in America around the 1960s-1970s and then it spread to Europe and the rest of the world, this movement is still present today. Post-modernism is used in a confusing variety of ways. For some it means anti-modern; for others it means the revision of modernist ideologies. The term Post signifies a historical sequencing in which a previous state of affairs is outdated, therefore functioning in the first instance as a period defining term. Postmodernism in its simple form means after the modernist movement while the term modern refers to something related with the present. What people first thought was modern and modernistic, others were dissatisfied with what they saw because of the way Modernism has evolved therefore leading to a Postmodernist movement. Post-modernism was primarily a reaction to Modernism because the Modernist movement was seen as fraudulent and contradicting. This movement began with architecture, as a reactionary movement against the so-called blandness and conventionalisation present in the modernist movement. Architects werent interested in creating perfect buildings that conformed to certain social rules. Instead architects such as Michael Graves took it upon themselves to favour personal preferences over popular culture therefore creating a post modernist structure. Postmodernists felt the buildings failed to meet the human need for comfort both for body and for the eye. Modernism did not account for the desire for beauty. The post-modern philosophy is distinguished by factors such as criticism, scepticism and subjectivity. In my opinion from looking at my research I would class post-modernism as having the same ideologies as the modernist movement as in wanting to break away from the conventional and mainstream. Moreover post-modernism was breaking away from the now mainstream movement Modernism therefore creating a new movement altogether, Post-modernism. Animation has been around since the turn of the 20th century when filmmakers such as J. Stuart Blackton made the first animated film called Humorous phases of funny faces. Blackton drew comical faces on a blackboard and filmed them. He would stop the film, erase one face to draw another, and then film the newly drawn face. The stop-motion provided an animated effect as the facial expressions changed before the viewers eyes. Humorous Phases of Funny Faces is regularly cited as the first true animated film, and Blackton is considered the first true animator. Animation is different from live action film in the sense that there are limitless amounts of possibilities that can be achieved because the only real boundary is the artists imagination rather than physical restraints. In the early 1900s animation was dominated by Disney productions such as Snow White, which marked the golden age of Hollywood animation. Through the 1950s animation became a lot more stylised and broke away from the mainstream Disney style. The animations in this period incorporated modern art aesthetics such as in the backgrounds and general stylisation of characters. As technology evolved the use of computers started to play a part in animation. For example artists were now able to reproduce shapes, characters and scenery digitally without the need for pencils and paper, therefore allowing the animator to watch their progression in real time instead of having to film each frame. After researching it could be said that early animation such as traditional hand drawn and stop motion are a modernist art form and that the incorporation of computers and 3D animation nowadays can be seen as being post-modern because it has broken away from the traditional ways of working. So is animation a modern or post-modern art form? From my research into both movements I can positively say that animation is a post-modernist art form. I have come to this conclusion based on the fact that cinema is a modernist art form and animation was developed as a new form of expression and creative output that broke away from the mainstream which was cinema at the time. By writing this chapter it has given me a better understanding of what art movements occurred during certain periods and the impact they created in society. My next question would be what movement is going to emerge next after post-modernism and what kind of creativity and ways of thinking are go